Coastal and Marine, Sulawesi
Biodiversity and Tropical Forests in Indonesia.

Within Indonesia, Wallacea, which includes Sulawesi, has the most extensive reef development and the highest coral species diversity (Suharsono 1998). Sulawesi has a coastline of approximately 6,000 km that incorporates many diverse types of ecosystems and habitats. Sulawesi is a globally important natural laboratory of evolution and species diversity. It is second in Indonesia only to Papua as a center of endemism (BAPPENAS 2003). Three of the six national marine parks (Bunaken, Wakatobi, Take Bonerate) are located in Sulawesi, each different from the others because of their geographical influences. Two of those sites have been recommended to become Natural World Heritage Marine Sites – Bunaken and Wakatobi (UNESCO 2003), with some discussion of Take Bonerate also being included. There are 24 important wetland areas in Sulawesi including Mangrove Lantung and Tondano Lake, North Sulawesi. These wetland areas include 43 sites for nesting water fowl, more than 50 migrant species of birds (23 species of which are threatened). There are 67 endemic species of marine fish reported from the mangrove areas (BAPPENAS 2003).

There are 16 nationally recognized wetland or marine conservation areas in Sulawesi, totaling 2,800,000 ha of marine and 695,000 ha of wetlands (BAPPENAS 2003).

Mangrove Forests were once widespread along the coasts of Sulawesi but are rapidly disappearing. From an original area of approximately 270,000 ha in the 1980s, there are less than 85,000 ha (31%) of mangroves remaining, and only 6,300 ha are under protection. The mangroves in Sulawesi previously accounted for a mere 4% of the national total area of mangroves, reduced now to 2% (BAPPENAS 2003). These have largely been destroyed by the same human activities mentioned earlier in this Report. South Sulawesi had more remaining patches of mangrove than the other provinces in Sulawesi combined (Darsidi 1982, BAPPENAS 2003). There are 16 species of mangrove in all Sulawesi, and 15 species of mangrove in Kwandang Bay, North Sulawesi (two of which are rare: Excoecaria agallocha, Camptostemon philippinense) and one which is endemic (Xylocarpus moluccensis) (BAPPENAS 2003). The mangrove habitats of Sulawesi support a wide variety of rare and endangered species such as the Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodylus porosis), the Sulawesi Civet (Macrogalidia musschenbroekii), the Vegetarian Pig (Sus celebenis), two monkey species (Macaca tonkeana and, Macaca ochreata), an endemic snake (Enhydris matannenis) and heron (Mycteria cinerea). There are also 34 migratory bird species including the White - belly Marine Hawk (Haliaeetus leucogaster), a white egret (Ciconia episcopus), and the Black-necked Mermaid (Sterna sumatrana). A new move toward conservation has been the establishment of community mangrove reserves in North Sulawesi and programs to shift from burning wood from the mangroves and using charcoal made from coconuts instead. These practices are being supported and expanded through government and donor work in the areas.

Bunaken National Park, North Sulawesi, consists of six islands and a coastal section that includes part of the Tanjung Kelapa coast near Manado Bay. It is a classic small, integrated reef ecosystem, including mangroves, sea grass and coral in a wide variety of habitats (fringing reefs, lagoons, drop offs, pinnacles, etc.). Numerous studies recently have identified this area as extraordinarily high in marine biodiversity, close to matching and second only to the Raja Ampat area in Papua.

One of the most famous and rarest endangered marine species in the world is found in North Sulawesi. This is coelacanth fish (Latimeria chalumnae), a rare and ancient genus (370 million years old) that was re-discovered in the western Indian Ocean in 1938. Until 1997, it had not been found anywhere else in the world. However, in 1997-98, two living animals were discovered in North Sulawesi, and DNA studies indicate that these may indeed be a new undescribed species of the genus Latimeria , which is one of only two fish genera on the CITES Appendix I, a list of the most rare and endangered species in the world (Erdmann and Moosa 1999).

Several rare and charismatic species are also found near the shore of North Sulawesi, including molluscs, turtles, dugongs, cetaceans and strange fishes. The endangered molluscan species include the Giant Clam (Tridacna gigas), the Horned Helmet (Cassis cornuta) and the Pearly-chambered Nautilus (Nautilus pompillius) (Ministry of Forestry et al. 2003). Turtles found here include the Leatherback (Dermochelyes coriac), Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas), and Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata). The endangered marine mammal, the dugong (Dugong dugon) is found regularly in at least one village within the Park. There are numerous cetaceans that transit through or spend parts of their lives in the marine waters within and near Bunaken National Marine Park. These include the following marine mammals that are all listed on the IUCN Red List (similar to the CITES Appendix I or II): the Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus) with reports in 2003 of divers swimming with three individuals in Manado Bay; the Pygmy Sperm Whale (Kogia breviceps); the Pygmy Killer Whale (Feresa attenuate) and the Killer Whale (Orcinus orca) (Reeves et al. 2003). In addition, a variety of rare and beautiful sea horses (Hippocampus spp.), including sea dragons and pygmy sea horses, have also been found. All sea horse species have been put on the CITES lists due to their over harvesting and consequent rarity. Ecotourism has placed some of the endangered fauna in this Park at greater risk. This prompted the local private sector and government agencies in North Sulawesi to conduct a survey in 2003 to evaluate the number of tourists that the Park can carry. This was carried out as a basis for developing management tools to limit the impact of tourism on the Park.

Two of the world’s leading coral reef biodiversity specialists, Drs. Lyndon DeVantier and Emre Turak, who compiled the marine biodiversity lists for Sangihe-Talaud, Raja Ampat and the Northern Great Barrier Reef, completed a survey in North Sulawesi in December 2003, primarily in Bunaken Marine Park waters. Bunaken’s coral condition exceeded that of the other “pristine” areas like Raja Ampat and the Northern Great Barrier Reef, with an average live coral cover of 42%. This good condition was attributed by the authors to the management of the Park in the last few years. There were 390 species of hard coral representing 63 genera and 15 families recorded. This is an extremely high number for such a small area. If the extraordinary coastal habitats of Lembeh Straits and Likupang were included, the scientists predict that North Sulawesi’s species richness might exceed that of Raja Ampat, which has an area 20 to 30 times as large. High diversity was also frequently recorded within a single site. This included a world record of 221 coral species in a single location near Mantehage Island. At least 20 species of rare and restricteddistribution corals were found in Bunaken. In addition, and importantly, 85% of the sites here included more than 30% of the full species list found in the Indo-Pacific region. This indicates that North Sulawesi is a reservoir of global marine biodiversity, like a “bank,” should there be a need to replenish other reefs in the Indo-Pacific after a disaster.

Bunaken Marine Park is being proposed as a Natural World Heritage Marine Site along with four or five other marine sites (Raja Ampat, Wakatobi, Derawan Islands, Banda and Flores Islands and Taka Bonerate) as a “cluster” site to conserve the distinctly representative marine habitats in Indonesia. The area being proposed for the North Sulawesi “cluster” site incorporates Bunaken National Park, Manado Bay, north coast of Likupang, Talise Islands, Bangka and Gangga, as well as Lembeh Straits. This suggests that the key watershed for protection and the target areas for pollution control are the Tondano, and the Lembehan Strait-Likupan catchment areas (PWS), and the cities of Manado and Bitung, but this needs confirmation.

The Taka Bonerate National Marine Park, South Sulawesi, is an atoll of 220,000 ha that is surrounded by more than 500 km2 of corals. This atoll is the largest in Indonesia and the third largest in the world. The topography of this Park is unique, consisting of a chain of 21 islands of dry coral and a large flat sunken reef. There are 95 species of coral fish and several species of fish of high economic value such as the grouper (Epinephelus spp), skip jack (Katsuwonus spp.) and Napoleon Wrasse (Cheilinus undulates), all three of which are valued both as food and as attractions for tourists (Ministry of Forestry et al. 2003, BAPPENAS 2003). There are 244 species of molluscs found here, including the rare Triton Trumpet (Charonia tritonis), the Fluted Giant Clam (Tridacna squamosa) and the Pearly-chambered Nautilus (Nautilus popillius). The Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), the Pacific Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), and the Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas), which are on the CITES lists, nest there as well (Ministry of Forestry et al. 2003).

Wakatobi National Marine Park, Southeast Sulawesi, lies in a remote area of small islands with sheer reef wall drop offs in many places. The Park has 25 chains of coral reefs with a total coast line of 600 km. Hundreds of coral species have been identified, including approximately one hundred species of ornamental reef fish.